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The Buddha-land as Presented in the Vimalakīrtinirdeśa-sūtra
The Most Ven. Prof. Tue Sy
I. THE NOTION OF A BUDDHA-LAND
Rarely does genesis have
significance in the teachings of the Buddha, although it was challenged more
than once by His disciples. Buddha refused to reveal the problem since it is of
no use for leading to the ultimate goal, and partly because of the shortness of
human knowledge, which is unable to cover the infinity of time and space.
Nevertheless, whenever the question of the origin of castes and social inequity
arose, the revelation of Buddha is unambiguous. Variety in the world is caused
by the very deeds of sentient beings. Human life is but a stage in the endless
evolutions and revolutions of living. Up to a definite point of time,
individuals come to recognize the presence of others not only in their physical
existence but also with their emotions and thoughts. This gives rise to the
consciousness of rivalry. A struggle for life took place among members of the
primordial community who accidentally lived together in a limited geographic
area, sharing a common identity, facing the scarcity of external materials on
which the satisfaction of their wants and needs depended. People were then
aware of the fact that one man’s gain is the loss of others. The fight to
gather natural resources was getting more and more intense as the population grew
thicker and thicker. Social conflict had to be dealt with and the primitive
government was constituted under the arbitration of a Mahāsammato. Land
was then distributed by hypothetical social contract or taken by force.
New classes gradually emerged, firstly with land-owners or kṣatriya,
and eventually with the oppressed ones.
Conflict within and without
communities in the struggle for life, fighting for the possession of lands, is
the premise of the notion of nation. Conventionally, the term nation denotes
a large community of people, usually sharing a common history, culture, and
language, and living in a particular territory under a single
sovereign government. Substantially it also implies the notion of social
harmony which developed into the idea of a prosperous Kingdom ruled over by a
Cakkavattin, in which people live in accordance with Dhamma and ten categories
of good deeds are universally practiced.
Overall, the highest ideal nation
is the one that is presided by an Enlightened One, not as a Monarch who is the
absolute sovereign ruling over and served by its people, but as a Supreme
Leader who guides people to lofty aspirations of wisdom and liberation.
The notion of a Buddhakṣetra, or Buddha-land, was thus conceived.
It is, however, with this
conception, Buddha-land can be by no means visualized in common sense. That
means it is unessential to suggest that the notion of Buddha-land should imply
the principles of territory, people, and government, in spite of the fact that
such a land is generally believed by Buddhist followers to be reigned by a
Buddha. According to traditions in Buddhism, especially in its later
development, there have been existing numerous Buddha-lands in infinite space.
This gives rise to the idea that a Buddha-land must be confined in a boundary
so as to be differentiate it from the others.
It is quite arguable that Buddha
very often refused to reply the question of whether the world is finite or
infinite. Yet, in their philosophical treatments of the Buddha’s teachings,
Buddhist scholars did not hesitate to work it out as a speculative manipulation
to discard the only universe that was ever created and reigned over by a
Supreme God or Absolute Brahma. In the infinity of time and space - there
existed, will exist, and is existing - a countless number of Enlightened Ones.
Notwithstanding that there would never be the appearance of two Buddhas in the
world, i.e. in the same space at the same time.
What is, then, the formation of
the world implied in the conception of the Buddha-land?
In this connection, a
Buddha-world should be considered a land with its own attributes in regards to
physical conditions, even a territory with its boundaries, forms of beings,
various states of suffering and happiness, and so on.
II. THE CONSTITUTION OF A BUDDHA-LAND
In its earlier development, when
Buddhism was essentially impressed with the monastic life, the Buddhist ideal
world was embodied in the image of a vast Kingdom, reigned over by the
Cakkavattin, extending from end to end of the earth, conquered not by
sword but by righteousness. Later, as the Mahāyāna developed, the
Cakkavattin’s Kingdom was replaced by the ideal of Buddha-land. The replacement
can be conceived as the transition from the ideal of a good monarchism, to a
democracy at a time when lay Buddhists claimed their attainment of the highest
goal in their very worldly life. The term democracy used in this context should
not be understood to mean a form of government ruled by people. In its broadest
sense, it implies a non-state nation, a Buddha-land, presided over but not
ruled by a Buddha, the Enlightened One, in the sense that every sentient being,
or more substantially, all its citizens, are blessed with favorable conditions
to practice the Way that leads to the final deliverance, and endowed with the
possibility of attaining enlightenment.
However, Buddha-land is not taken
for granted as an act of providence or a wonderful world wrought out by the
grace of Buddha. It is the perfection of the great resolute vows devoting
oneself to the happiness and welfare of others, after a long process through
myriads of aeons of the purification of mind.
1. Purification of Sentient Beings and Their Environment
As stated in the Vimalakīrtinirdeśa-sūtra,
when entreated by Ratnākara to elucidate the constitution
of a Buddha-land, the Buddha is supposed to give a definitive answer that “The
sentient beings’ world is the Buddha-land of a Bodhisattva” (Skt. sattvakṣetraṃ
kulaputra bodhisattvasya). As has been said, a world is treated by
Buddhist scholars to be composed of two spheres: sattvaloka and bhajanaloka, or
the world of living beings and their environment. It is from this view
that commentators on the Sūtra have presented the significance of a
Buddha-land.
In his commentary, K’uei-chi, a Chinese scholar, describes
two types of Buddha-lands: (a) Secular Land, consisting of sattvas and bhājanaloka;
and (b) Sacred Land, consisting of Bodhisattvas and their Prodigious Realm.
In his words, “No separated land exists
apart from sentient beings. As sentient beings come into existence their
environment is present. As sentient beings become Bodhisattvas, their land is
transformed into a Prodigious Realm. A Bodhisattva’s original vow is to lead
sentient beings to the transcendental world. It is not that the
receptacle-world is directly converted into the pure land” (Taishō 38n1782,
p.1023b1).
Thus, a Bodhisattva’s pure land
is, in its essence, the very land of sentient beings. Yet, whether the land is
pure or impure depends totally on the characteristics of the sentient beings
living in it. As a corollary, the object of realization is the concrete world
consisting of sentient beings and their environment. For the sake of their
welfare, a Bodhisattva needs to purify their environment. That is to say, they must
try their best to provide them with any possible conditions for practicing
Buddha-dharma and developing their good qualities (kuśala-mūla) into a
firm foundation of true happiness. In reality, unless a Bodhisattva can
help sentient beings to purify their minds, the Bodhisattva fails to purify
their environment; and unless they improve their living conditions, they cannot
help the beings to purify their minds. This mutual relation is essentially
beyond the reach of thinking. For this cannot exist
without that, and vice-versa.
In order to help sentient beings
transform their minds so that they can attain a pure Buddha-land, a Bodhisattva
carries out their vow in two ways, based upon the development and benefit of
sentient beings, and the arising of their pure qualities.
In a Chinese translation of the
Sūtra by Hsuan-tsang, these ways are determined; but they are combined
into one in Kumārajīva’s translation: “The
Buddha-land that a Bodhisattva vows to establish depends on the type of
sentient beings instructed” (Taishō 38n1782, p.1023b7).
In order to improve sentient
beings’ environment, a Bodhisattva establishes a Buddha-land according to three
standards: (1) land suitable for sentient beings to control themselves, that
is, training their minds easily; (2) land suitable for them to penetrate
Buddha-wisdom; and (3) land suitable for them either to develop
their Bodhisattva qualities, as in Kumārajīva’s translation, or to perform
their noble conducts, as in Hsuan-tsang’s translation.
2. Qualities of a Buddha-land
Compassion and wisdom, vows and practices are the virtues
of a Bodhisattva in the course of cultivating and spreading their ideal.
With wisdom (prajñāpāramitā) they can penetrate into the essence of
Being, source of suffering and happiness, so that they can easily sympathize
with sentient beings’ various states of mind. With compassion (karuṇā)
they make their greatest efforts to bring about the benefit
and happiness for sentient beings. Accordingly, the Bodhisattva’s resolute
vow (praṇidhāna) is to set forth a form of Buddha-land suitable for
various capabilities and tendencies of different types of sentient beings. And
from this very vow, they plan out their conducts (caryā)
elaborately. Thus, vows and behaviors may be regarded as causal
conditions, taken to be the guiding principle of a Bodhisattva’s noble
mission.
In Kumārajīva’s translation, the 17 conducts a Bodhisattva
should perform are three minds (citta), six perfections (pāramitās),
four boundless states of mind (apramāṇa-citta), and four principles
of harmonization (saṁgraha-vastu).
In Hsuan-tsang’s translation, there are 18 conducts. The
difference is in that the three minds mentioned in the former translation are
replaced by the four categories of land.
A. Three Minds and Four Categories of Land
Regarding the three minds, Kumārajīva’s translation says, “(1) ‘Righteous mind’ is a
Bodhisattva’s pure land. When a Bodhisattva gets perfectly enlightened, those
sentient beings who have abandoned flattery will be born there. (2) ‘Profound
mind’ is a Bodhisattva’s pure land. When a Bodhisattva gets perfectly
enlightened, those beings who are possessed of virtues will be born there. (3)
Bodhi-mind is a Bodhisattva’s pure land. When a Bodhisattva gets perfectly
enlightened, those beings that are practicing Mahāyāna teaching will be
born there.”
The implications and mutual relations of these minds are
explained by Ji-zang as follows: “Sentient
beings are attached to being (bhava); Śrāvakayāna and Pratyekabuddhayāna incline towards non-being (abhava). All of their minds
are ‘crooked’. Bodhisattvas, who concentrate their mind on right insight,
are called ‘righteous’… To arouse bodhi-mind is the starting-point; that is,
beginning with right insight. When right insight becomes much more penetrating,
it is called ‘profound mind’; that is to say, it is too deep and firm to be
moved… In order to set foot on a large way it is necessary for a Bodhisattva to
keep his mind righteous. Then he can carry out his conducts. Once he is capable
of performing his conducts perfectly, he can move everything towards the
site of enlightenment, which is the very meaning of Bodhi-mind” (Taishō 38n1781,
p.928b19).
In
Hsuan-tsang’s translation, the minds just cited are presented in terms of the
four lands: (1) Land of Bodhi-mind: the one in which all beings arouse the mind
towards enlightenment. (2) Land of Noble Intention: the one formed by the pure
noble intention of a Bodhisattva. When they realized the perfect enlightenment,
those beings that are honest and innocent will be born in this land. This
corresponds with “Righteous mind” above. (3) Land of Good Application: the one
formed due to the efforts to cultivate good qualities that have never been
known or possessed before (this is not mentioned in the former translation).
(4) Land of Transcendent Intention: corresponding with the “Profound mind”
mentioned above. When a Bodhisattva gets perfectly awakened, sentient beings
possessed of good virtues will be born there.
B. Six Perfections (Pāramitās): charity
or generosity (dāna), morality (śīla), endurance
(kṣānti), energy (vīrya), meditation (dhyāna), wisdom (prajñā).
According to K’uei-chi, the function of all six pāramitās is
to help a Bodhisattva develop their “dwelling in tranquility” or
calming the mind (śamatha), and abandoning all hindrances to attain
perfection.
C. Four Boundless States of Mind (apramāṇcitta): boundless
loving-kindness (maitrī), boundless compassion (karuṇā),
boundless joy (muditā), boundless equanimity (upekṣā).
D. Four Principles of Harmonization (saṅgraha-vastu):
(1) dāna or generosity; (2) priyavādita or
kind speech; (3) arthacaryā or conduct for the benefit of
others; (4) samānārthatā, equality with themselves or impartiality.
E. Other Conducts: skillful means (upāya), 37
members leading to the attainment of enlightenment (bodhipākṣika-dharma),
four boundless states of mind, and four principles of harmonization, all
belong to the same category, called “the statement of starting points” (according
to K’uei-chi’s commentary).
F. Three Conducts: preaching the release from
eight unfavorable conditions in which it is difficult to practice
the Buddha-dharma (aṣṭāv akṣaṇāḥ), observing disciplinary
rules, and the ten good deeds (daśa-kuśalakarmapatha), all belong
to the category called “Tranquility” (also by K’uei-chi).
It should be noticed that all the
conducts mentioned in Hsuan-tsang’s translation point to varied forms of
Buddha-land established by the above-mentioned conducts of a Bodhisattva, not
to those in the ordinary sense of the term.
May 15, 2007
Most Ven. Prof. Tue Sy,
former editor of Thought, a
renowned Buddhist magazine published by Van Hanh University, now known as
Vietnam Buddhist University. He is a Buddhist philosopher, the most well-known
among Vietnamese community worldwide. He has translated The Agamas into
Vietnamese and authored more than 20 scholarly books on Mahayana philosophy and
Vinaya.
Source: Selected papers on Buddhist Contributions to Good Governance and
Development. The 4th International Buddhist Conference on the United Nations.
The Buddha-land as Presented in the Vimalakirtinirdesa-sutra
Most Ven. Prof. Tue Sy. Pg. 101-109
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The Buddha-land as Presented in the Vimalakīrtinirdeśa-sūtra
In
Hsuan-tsang’s translation, the minds just cited are presented in terms of the
four lands: (1) Land of Bodhi-mind: the one in which all beings arouse the mind
towards enlightenment. (2) Land of Noble Intention: the one formed by the pure
noble intention of a Bodhisattva. When they realized the perfect enlightenment,
those beings that are honest and innocent will be born in this land. This
corresponds with “Righteous mind” above. (3) Land of Good Application: the one
formed due to the efforts to cultivate good qualities that have never been
known or possessed before (this is not mentioned in the former translation).
(4) Land of Transcendent Intention: corresponding with the “Profound mind”
mentioned above. When a Bodhisattva gets perfectly awakened, sentient beings
possessed of good virtues will be born there.
